第四週 Chp:4 系統單元的組成元件

Flash memory

Flash memory is a non-volatile computer storage chip that can be electrically erased and reprogrammed. It was developed from EEPROM (electrically erasable programmable read-only memory) and must be erased in fairly large blocks before these can be rewritten with new data. The high density NAND type must also be programmed and read in (smaller) blocks, or pages, while the NOR type allows a single machine word (byte) to be written or read independently.
The NAND type is primarily used in memory cards, USB flash drives, solid-state drives, and similar products, for general storage and transfer of data. The NOR type, which allows true random access and therefore direct code execution, is used as a replacement for the older EPROM and as an alternative to certain kinds of ROM applications. However, NOR flash memory may emulate ROM primarily at the machine code level; many digital designs need ROM (or PLA) structures for other uses, often at significantly higher speeds than (economical) flash memory may achieve. NAND or NOR flash memory is also often used to store configuration data in numerous digital products, a task previously made possible by EEPROMs or battery-powered static RAM.
閃存是一種非易失性的計算機存儲芯片，可電擦除和重新編程。從EEPROM（電可擦除可編程只讀存儲器），它被開發之前，這些都可以用新的數據重寫，必須在相當大的塊​​擦除。還必須進行編程的高密度NAND型和閱讀中（小）塊，或網頁，而NOR型允許一台機器字（字節），以書面或獨立閱讀。
NAND型記憶卡，USB閃存驅動器，固態驅動器，與同類產品一般存儲和數據傳輸，主要用於。 NOR型，從而使真正的隨機存取，因此直接執行代碼，用於更換舊的EPROM和ROM的應用程序的某些種類的替代。然而，NOR快閃記憶體可能效仿，主要在機器代碼級的ROM;許多數字設計需要作其他用途ROM（或解放軍）的結構，往往比（經濟型）快閃記憶體，可達到顯著更高的速度。 NAND或NOR快閃記憶體也常常被用來配置數據存儲在眾多的數碼產品，以前的任務可能由EEPROM或電池供電的靜態RAM。

第四週 Chp:4 系統單元的組成元件

Adapter card

 The adapter card (also expansion board, expansion card or accessory card) in computing is a printed circuit board that can be inserted into an expansion slot of a computer motherboard or backplane to add functionality to a computer system via the expansion bus.
One edge of the expansion card holds the contacts (the edge connector) that fit exactly into the slot. They establish the electrical contact between the electronics (mostly integrated circuits) on the card and on the motherboard.
A card in a computer on which additional chips can be mounted to expand the computer's capabilities.

計算的適配卡（也擴展板，擴展卡或附屬卡）是一個印刷電路板，可以插入到電腦主板或背板添加功能，通過擴展總線的計算機系統的擴充槽。
一個擴充卡的邊緣，擁有適合完全進入插槽的接觸（邊緣連接器）。他們建立卡和主板上的電子產品（主要是集成電路）之間的電氣接觸。
一卡在計算機上額外的芯片可以安裝擴展計算機的功能。

Expansion slot

 An opening in a computer where a circuit board can be inserted to add new capabilities to the computer. Nearly all personal computers except portables contain expansion slots for adding more memory, graphics capabilities, and support for special devices. The boards inserted into the expansion slots are called expansion boards, expansion cards, cards, add-ins, and add-ons.
A connection in a computer, esp. a microcomputer, to which a new board can be added to expand the computer's capabilities. 

在電腦的電路板可以插入到計算機上添加新功能的開放。幾乎所有的除外便攜式個人電腦中添加更多的內存，圖形處理能力，並支持特殊設備擴展插槽。插入擴充槽板被稱為擴展板，擴展卡，卡，加載項和加載項。
一個在一台電腦的連接，ESP。微機，一個新的董事會可以添加到擴展計算機的功能。

第四週 Chp:4 系統單元的組成元件

Clock Speed

Clock frequency (also translated: clock speed, English: clock rate) is the fundamental frequency of the clock refers to the synchronization circuit to measure a number of cycles per second, unit of measurement to SI unit hertz (Hz)
For example, from the crystal base frequency is usually equal to a fixed sinusoidal waveform, the clock frequency is the base frequency, electronic circuits converted digital electronic devices into the corresponding square wave pulse. Need to add a little "speed" as a vector should not be scalar "frequency" confused, so use the "clock speed" to describe this concept is a misnomer.
In a single clock cycle (the time of modern embedded microprocessors are generally shorter than a nanosecond) the logic zero state and the logic state to switch back and forth. Due to the limitations of heat and power specifications, the cycle duration of the logic zero state has always been longer than the logic state.

時鐘頻率（又譯：時鐘速度，英語：時鐘速率）是基本時鐘頻率是指同步電路來衡量一個每秒的週期數，單位的測量SI單位赫茲（赫茲）
例如，從晶體基頻通常是等於一個固定的正弦波，時鐘頻率是基頻，電子電路轉換成相應的方波脈衝的數字電子設備。需要添加一點點的“速度”作為載體，不應該標“頻率”混淆，所以使用“時鐘速度”來形容這個概念是一種誤導。
在一個時鐘週期（現代嵌入式微處理器的時間一般較短的不足一納秒）零的邏輯狀態和邏輯狀態來回切換。由於熱量和功率規格的限制，一直邏輯零狀態的週期時間長於邏輯狀態。

第四週 Chp:4 系統單元的組成元件

power supply

A power supply is a device that supplies electrical energy to one or more electric loads. The term is most commonly applied to devices that convert one form of electrical energy to another, though it may also refer to devices that convert another form of energy (e.g., mechanical, chemical, solar) to electrical energy. A regulated power supply is one that controls the output voltage or current to a specific value; the controlled value is held nearly constant despite variations in either load current or the voltage supplied by the power supply's energy source. 

一個電源是一個或多個電力負荷的設備提供電能。這個詞是最常見的應用轉換成電能的一種形式到另一個設備，但它也可能是指設備轉換成電能的另一種形式的能量（如機械，化工，太陽能）。穩壓電源控制輸出電壓或電流到一個特定的值;舉行，儘管在任何負載電流或電源的能量來源提供的電壓變化控制值幾乎不變。

BUS  

 

In computer architecture, a bus is a subsystem that transfers data between components inside a computer, or between computers.
Early computer buses were literally parallel electrical wires with multiple connections, but the term is now used for any physical arrangement that provides the same logical functionality as a parallel electrical bus. Modern computer buses can use both parallel and bit serial connections, and can be wired in either a multidrop (electrical parallel) or daisy chain topology, or connected by switched hubs, as in the case of USB.

在計算機體系結構，總線是一個子系統，計算機內部組件，或計算機之間的數據傳輸。
早期的計算機總線字面平行與多個連接的電線，但現在任何身體上的安排，提供相同的邏輯功能，作為一個平行的電氣總線使用的術語。可以使用現代計算機總線並行和位串行連接，並可以在任何一個多點（電氣並行）有線或菊花鏈拓撲，或通過交換集線器連接，在USB的情況下。

第四週 Chp:4 系統單元的組成元件

Motherboard

In personal computers, a motherboard is the central printed circuit board (PCB) in many modern computers and holds many of the crucial components of the system, providing connectors for other peripherals. The motherboard is sometimes alternatively known as the mainboard, system board, or, on Apple computers, the logic board.[1] It is also sometimes casually shortened to mobo.
在個人電腦，主板是中央印製電路板（PCB）在許多現代計算機，並擁有許多系統的重要組成部分，為其他外圍設備的連接器。有時主板或者主板，系統板，或蘋果電腦上，邏輯板。[1]它有時也被隨隨便便縮短到主板。


Port (disambiguation)

A port is a facility for receiving ships and transferring cargo.Computer port (hardware), a physical interface between a computer and other computers or devices
Computer port (software), a virtual data connection between computer programs possibly through a computer network Porting, the process of modifying software so as to make it compatible with other operating system and/or hardware architectures
Ports collection, part of the package management infrastructure of modern BSD-derived operating systems Port numbers which are recognized by Internet and other network protocols, enabling the computer to interact with others List of TCP and UDP port numbersPORT.hu, a Hungarian film, actor, television, sports, and theatre database

第四週 Chp:4 系統單元的組成元件

Cache

In addition to clock speed and architecture, a processor's cache and front side bus (FSB) speed also determine a computer's overall power. In brief, cache is a form of very fast memory integrated into the processor chip, and used to store up instructions (work for the processor) so that it has to slow down as little as possible between tasks. Cache is measured in megabytes (MB), with (for example) low-end Celeron processors having as little as 0.25MB of cache (256KB), and high-end Itaniums having up to 24MB. The simple message is, the more cache the better -- though high levels of cache still come at a very significant price.
除了時鐘速度和架構，處理器的高速緩存和前端總線（FSB）速度也決定了計算機的整體實力。簡而言之，緩存是一個非常快的內存集成到處理器芯片，用於存儲指令處理器的工作，因此，它有減緩任務之間盡可能少的形式。緩存是衡量兆字節（MB），（例如）低端賽揚少0.25MB緩存（256KB）處理器，高端的安騰有到24MB。簡單的消息是，更多的緩存更好 - 雖然仍處於一個非常重要的價格高層次的緩存。
From: explainingcomputers.com

(1)CPU cache

Small memories on or close to the CPU can operate faster than the much larger main memory. Most CPUs since the 1980s have used one or more caches, and modern high-end embedded, desktop and server microprocessors may have as many as half a dozen, each specialized for a specific function. Examples of caches with a specific function are the D-cache and I-cache (data cache and instruction cache).
小回憶或靠近CPU可以操作速度比大得多的主存儲器。自20世紀80年代的大部分的CPU使用一個或多個高速緩存，和現代高端嵌入式，桌面和服務器微處理器中，可能有多達一半的打，每個專門為特定的功能。具有特定功能的高速緩存的例子是在D-cache和我緩存（數據緩存和指令高速緩存）。

(2)Disk cache

While CPU caches are generally managed entirely by hardware, a variety of software manages other caches. The page cache in main memory, which is an example of disk cache, is managed by the operating system kernel.

While the hard drive's hardware disk buffer is sometimes misleadingly referred to as "disk cache", its main functions are write sequencing and read prefetching. Repeated cache hits are relatively rare, due to the small size of the buffer in comparison to the drive's capacity. However, high-end disk controllers often have their own on-board cache of hard disk data blocks.

Finally, fast local hard disk can also cache information held on even slower data storage devices, such as remote servers (web cache) or local tape drives or optical jukeboxes. Such a scheme is the main concept of hierarchical storage management. 

雖然CPU緩存一般是完全由硬件，各種軟件管理等緩存。這是一個磁盤高速緩存的例子，在主內存中的頁面緩存，管理由操作系統的內核。

而硬盤驅動器的硬件磁盤緩衝區誤導有時簡稱為“磁盤高速緩存”，其主要職能是寫序，讀預取。重複的緩存命中率是比較少見，由於緩衝區在驅動器的容量比較小大小。然而，高端磁盤控制器通常有自己的板上緩存硬盤中的數據塊。

最後，快速的本地硬盤，也可以緩存更慢的數據存儲設備，如遠程服務器（Web緩存）或本地磁帶驅動器或光盤庫，掌握的信息。這項計劃是分層存儲管理的主要概念。

 

 

第四週 Chp:4 系統單元的組成元件

ROM (Read-only memory)

Read-only memory (ROM) is a class of storage medium used in computers and other electronic devices. Data stored in ROM cannot be modified, or can be modified only slowly or with difficulty, so it is mainly used to distribute firmware (software that is very closely tied to specific hardware, and unlikely to need frequent updates) 
只讀存儲器（ROM）是一類計算機及其他電子設備中使用的存儲介質。 ROM中存儲的數據不能被修改，或可以進行修改，只能緩慢或困難，所以它主要用於分發是非常密切的依賴特定的硬件，並不太需要頻繁更新固件（軟件）



RAM (Random access memory) 

Random access memory (RAM) is a form of computer data storage. Today, it takes the form of integrated circuits that allow stored data to be accessed in any order with a worst case performance of constant time. Strictly speaking, modern types of DRAM are therefore not random access, as data is read in bursts, although the name DRAM / RAM has stuck. However, many types of SRAM, ROM, OTP, and NOR flash are still random access even in a strict sense. RAM is often associated with volatile types of memory (such as DRAM memory modules), where its stored information is lost if the power is removed. Many other types of non-volatile memory are RAM as well, including most types of ROM and a type of flash memory called NOR-Flash. The first RAM modules to come into the market were created in 1951 and were sold until the late 1960s and early 1970s.
隨機存取存儲器（RAM）是計算機數據存儲的一種形式。今天，它需要的集成電路，允許以任何順序訪問一個常數時間的最糟糕的情況下的性能存儲數據的形式。因此，嚴格說來，現代的DRAM類型是不是隨機存取，突發讀取數據，雖然名字DRAM/內存卡。然而，許多類型的SRAM，ROM，OTP的，和NOR閃存仍然是，即使在嚴格意義上的隨機存取。 RAM通常是與揮發性類型的存儲器（如DRAM內存模塊），其存儲的信息丟失，如果電源被移走。許多其他類型的非易失性內存的RAM，以及包括大多數類型的ROM和NOR閃存的閃存類型。進入市場的第一個RAM模塊，創建於1951年，直到60年代後期和70年代初出售。

第四週 Chp:4 系統單元的組成元件

CPU (central processing unit)

The central processing unit (CPU) is the portion of a computer system that carries out the instructions of a computer program, to perform the basic arithmetical, logical, and input/output operations of the system. The CPU plays a role somewhat analogous to the brain in the computer. The term has been in use in the computer industry at least since the early 1960s. The form, design and implementation of CPUs have changed dramatically since the earliest examples, but their fundamental operation remains much the same.
中央處理單元（CPU）是計算機系統進行計算機程序的指令，執行基本的算術，邏輯，和輸入/輸出系統的操作部分。CPU所扮演的角色有點類似於計算機的大腦。一詞至少自20世紀60年代初一直在計算機行業中使用。的形式，設計和實施的CPU已經發生了巨大的變化，因為最早的例子，但他們的基本操作仍然相同。

第三週

乘法

M為被乘數
A為乘數

 當Q的尾數是1時
下一次的計算必須A加上Q
再進行移位(向右移一位)




 浮點表示法

1BIT      　　　8BIT     　　　23BIT

  ↓　　　　　　↓　　　　　　　↓

Ｓ　　　　　　Ｅ　　　　　　Ｆ

符號位元　　　偏移指數　　　尾數

└─────────────────────┘

　　　　　　２３ＢＩＴ

偏移值─１２７＝ 真實指數

例題：

　Ｏ　　             1000011                         

符號位元　　     偏移指數

                           ?-127=4　

                           ?=131

                            131÷2使用短除法運算

                            得1000011

01101000000000000000000

                  尾數

               1.  01101→小數點後的數字補零到23位元

               ↓         

              捨去


錯誤碼更正

D7→1100

D6→1011

D5→1010

D4→1001

C8→1000

D3→0111

D2→0110

D1→0101

C4→0100

D0→0011

C2→0010

C1→0001

列出數列後將四個位元湊出偶數個一
例: C1→0001 經運算後得C1=1

C1=D0⊕D1⊕D3⊕D4⊕D6
     =

C2=D0⊕D2⊕D3⊕D5⊕D6

C3=D1⊕D2⊕D3⊕D7

C4=D4⊕D5⊕D6⊕D7

運算

                

 設原數值為:101110100110
 而傳送出來的數值為:101010100110
其中D4的位置的位元產生錯誤
預查出錯誤
算出C1,C2 ,C3,C4的數值
得到的數字則知道哪個位子的位元錯了

　　


          




















     

第二週

在數字碼中
最做邊的位元昰符號位元
符號0代表的是正數
符號1代表的是負數
例如

＋18的表示方法為:00010010

－18的表示方法為:10010010

1′s補數法

＋1   0001      

＋2   0010

＋3   0011

＋4   0100

＋5   0101

＋6   0110

＋7   0111

＋8   NO

－0    1111

－1    1110

－2    1101

－3    1100     

－4    1011

－5    1010

－6    1001

－7    1000

－8    NO

2′s補數法

＋0  0000 
＋1  0001
＋2  0010

＋3  0011
＋4  0100
＋5  0101
＋6  0110
＋7  0111
＋8  NO
－0  0000
－1  1111
－2  1110
－3  1101
－4  1100
－5  1011
－6  1010
－7  1001
－8  1000

1's與2′s補數法之運用與轉換